Hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha)

An English tradition exists whereby it is understood the calendrical celebration of Mayday is not as permitted until the appearance of Hawthorn flowers, such is the magical  importance of this small wizened tree. The flowers have an almost quixotic fragrance which serves as an aphrodisiacal medicine in itself, when the meadows and hillsides come alive in spring. (As an aside, I have been observing the coincidence of Hawthorn blossom with calendrical Mayday for over 20 years, and have noticed an uncanny punctuality to this blossoming nearly every year, notwithstanding the weather). In English folk custom, the Mayqueen maiden of the village wears Hawthorn blossom in her hair.

 

The diversity of growth form has been utilised by humans for centuries: constant pruning and clipping produces dwarf forms which are turned into hedges to contain livestock. Out on the hillsides, single trees stand bent and gnarled, known as “flag trees” and used istorically as way markers. Hedges are maintained by hedgelaying, a purposeful cutting of the trunks which leaves a strip of bark & cambium in tact, and bending over of the tree which encourages vertical shoots to form and makes it stock- proof. In this way, a hawthorn hedge could be kept alive indefinitely, and certainly there are many examples of hedges many hundreds of years old, which only stand a few feet high. As its name implies, Hawthorn carries thorns which “seal the deal” as an aid to enclosure. Getting stabbed by the thorns is a more forgiving experience than its sister tree, Blackthorn (which has an unpleasant toxic effect). .

Hawthorn is therefore a significant tree of the woodland edge, and provides microhabitats and “wildlife corridor” for an unlimited array of wildlife. The destruction of Hawthorn hedges is a matter of grave conservation concern. Apart from the habitat destruction, the functional importance of wildlife corridors results in limited adaptive response of the landscape to change, reducing genetic diversity in isolated populations of plants, fungi, mammals, and insects. 

Finally, the berries of hawthorn, which are a vivid red colour and quite beautiful in autumn, attract overwintering birds to the garden. The berries can also be used as a gentle, safe cardiovascular tonic in herbal medicine. They increase the strength and volume of the heart beat, and do not interfere with any known pharmacological heart medicines. This is much safer than using the alkaloids of foxglove, which have an effective dose which is unnervingly close to the fatal dose. 

Elder (Sambucus nigra)

The flowers are fragrant and provide an uplifting splash of colour from mid spring through the summer. Elder is known as ‘the medicine tree’ and all parts of the plant can be used as medicine: root, bark, leaves, flowers, and berries. Whilst the different parts have different medicinal effects, the properties of Elder range from a mild diuretic, to a strong purge to the bowels, which was used frequently in the ‘heroic age’ of herbal medicine. The flowers are an excellent diaphoretic (sweating agent) which can be employed, along with yarrow and mint, during fever. The berries make a delightful ‘rob’, which is a type of runny jam. It can of course be thickened by the addition of pectin, and contains large amounts of Vitamin C.

Elder produces large white umbels which attract a host of insects and pollinators, and thus birds, into the garden. The bark is rough and provides micro- niches for fauna. Often Elder is seed dispersed through bird droppings, so it is not unusual to find a tree by a fence. It propagates vegetatively quite easily. The wood is pulpy and not very good for burning. 

In folklore, the Medicine Crone, or Elder Mother (Hilder- Moer) inhabits the tree. This quote is from Glennie Kindred (who in turn probably discovered this information from Mrs. Grieves: A Modern Herbal):

There are very strong superstitions about not cutting down the elder. Maybe a fear of releasing that malevolent spirit or maybe a deep respect for this tree, which gives so much by way of medicines, food and drink. Early European folk tales tell of a dryad, Hylde-moer, The Elder Tree Mother, who lives in the elder tree and watches over it. Should the tree be chopped down and furniture made of the wood, Hylde-moer would follow her property and haunt the owners. Similar tales tell that if a child's cradle were to be made of elder, Hylde-moer would pinch the child black and blue and give it no peace or rest. Thus it is considered unlucky to make a cradle out of elder wood - birch being the property wood for a cradle, signifying a new start or inception. 

The association of the tree with death is palpable. I accidentally chain- sawed an Elder tree down when I was felling in the woods, and the stench of (presumably), valerianic acid was quite enough to send a shiver down the spine. This, coupled with the formidable 'heroic' herbal medicine applications (encouraging emesis, purgation) during the pyretic phase of fever, and its connection with Halloween and the dark side of the year, are more than enough to instill a supernatural respect.

Chickweed (Stellaria media)

Chickweed is exceptionally abundant in towns and country during the spring, autumn, and winter. It will occasionally be found in shadier spots during the summer, but it doesn’t enjoy hot sunshine.This preference, coupled with shallow roots, makes it an ideal understory plant for a vegetable garden. The cover provided by chickweed will competitively exclude other 'weeds' and provide a delicious crop of salad vegetables.

This plant was one of the Victorian’s favourites. The earthy succulence, and soft yet crisp textures, go really well in any salad. When we talk of foraging for alternatives to expensive, nitrate-soaked, plastic-packed salads - then this plant, which grows freely for us, screams out to be used rather than treated as a pernicious weed.

Chickweed also has a long history of traditional uses as an emollient for the skin, helping cases of eczema, psoriasis, ulcers, boils, and abscesses. It can be administered through poultices, compresses, baths and through its consumption in tinctures, fluid extracts in capsules, and as tea. Internally chickweed can be used for rheumatic and respiratory conditions, especially where excessive mucous is present. The17th century herbalist John Gerard recommended it as a remedy for mange. I also make a chickweed ointment in addition to comfrey which is excellent for skin.

S. media contains saponins, which can be toxic when consumed in large quantities. Chickweed has been known to cause saponin poisoning in cattle. However, as the animal must consume several kilos of chickweed in order to reach a toxic level, such deaths are rare. Many such potentially toxic compounds are mitigated against by other factors and phytonutrients in most plants (for example tannins prevent stomach bleeds using White Willow Bark, a main source of salicylic acid (Aspirin)).

The acclaimed Juliette de Bairacli Levy, observed that this plant was employed around the world. She also saw a resemblence between its uses and that of slippery elm: a prized, and also mucilage-rich, digestive and emollient plant. As such, Bairacli Levy rated chickweed as one of the most valuable weeds in the garden. Slippery elm does not grow wild in Britain and is an endangered plant due to the ravages of Dutch elm disease, so we may come to use and cherish chickweed more and more in a post-peak-oil society.

Comfrey (Symphytum officinale)

Comfrey (Symphytum officinale) is a wonder plant. It is a dynamic accumulator, drawing minerals out of the soil and into the roots and leaves, a compost accelerator, a fine ingredient in liquid manure (comfrey tea, similar to nettle tea below), beneficial insect attractor, mulch, weed suppressant (it can be used as a border around vegetable plots to stop the paths getting overrun with weeds, biomass accumulator, livestock forage, edible, a wound healer and it was traditionally called 'knit bone' by herbalists as it helps heals fractures and soft tissue injuries (owing principally to its allantoin content). It's an ideal permaculture plant.

Even though comfrey has long been esteemed as a vulnerary, it has come under scrutiny owing to its safety in recent years because of the discovery of the pyrrolizidine alkaloids. These are believed to be hepatoxic (toxic to the liver). Using comfrey externally as a poultice or as a compress has always been safe. However recent scientific studies indicate that comfrey, when ingested in large amounts and over long periods of time will cause liver damage. This is because of the pyrrolizidine alkaloids it contains. These pyrrolizidine alkaloids occur in a number of other plants as well, including ragwort, borage, and coltsfoot. In the 1980s there was a research paper that reported liver damage in laboratory animals that had varying doses of these alkaloids injected into them intravenously. This came as shock to the herbalist community because comfrey has long been regarded as one of the safest herbs. I make a comfrey root and lavender ointment, which I have successfully used to treat bruises, greenstick fractures, cartilage, tendon and ligament wrenches, and skin problems. It is also very good for deep tissue massage as it provides a viscous, healing medium which also contains beeswax and olive oil. Whilst the leaves can be used for a great tasting tea internally, the root is best used externally for safety reasons.

In the permaculture design, I have identified a marginal area which would benefit from comfrey cultivation (see above). The soil is damp, rich, and suitable for harvesting roots. Growing comfrey would eliminate other less useful plants owing to its vigour and the size of its leaves. The area is otherwise a 'neutral' space which would be hard to cultivate other plants owing to the low light intensity, and proximity of the greenhouse.

Comfrey has become an important plant for the organic gardening movement. It has thick, far reaching roots which access minerals deep in the soil, making it rich in potassium and nitrogen. The fast-growing leaves can be cut several times a year to make an organic slug control, liquid fertiliser, leaf mould and compost activator.

Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica)

Stinging Nettle is one of many commonplace plants which are both good for the wildlife garden, and serve as a food & medicine. They are therefore doubly welcome in a permaculture design.

Nettle tea has been used as a medicinal herb for centuries in Europe. An easily made green tea from fresh or dried leaves, nettle tea is loaded with antioxidants and other nutraceuticals that bring benefits to every system in the body. For two weeks in spring while the nettles are young and tender, a cup of nettle tea each day serves as a spring tonic. The vitamins, lutein, lycopene and iron in nettle tea are restorative to the system. Herbalists refer to nettle as an adaptogen, alterative, depurient, or a blood purifier, and it had found a place in many useful formulas, including more recently for hayfever.

Nettles can be used for food, and make an excellent soup although the location of the plant and its growing conditions should determine whether or where it is chosen. I spoke to my landlord once, who had been out on the moors wild- crafting some nettles. He said that evening he made a hearty nettle soup with his wife, and quickly fell into a deep 12 hour sleep from which he felt very refreshed but could remember nothing of the night before. Such reports of mildly sedative properties are not uncommon from wild plant foods. It did lead me to question where he might have picked them from.

As nettle tends to grow around human settlements, and concentrate sometimes toxic residues, care should be taken. In my study area, the nettle stand is next to a farm wall where it appears pesticides are loaded on to tractor booms, so I don't use them for medicine or food, or as fertiliser. They are instead being used as a detoxifying buffer against the wall, and to benefit wildlife.In years to come, and in the absence of any pesticide use at the farm, I would resume using the nettles for food and fertiliser. On the compost heap they supply plentiful ntirogen and silica. Medicines have a higher standard of purity, especially if they are to be concentrated into tinctures or fluid extracts, and I would wait somewhat longer to establish purity of the herbs before making medicines.

Stinging nettles support more than 40 kinds of insects, for whom the sting can form a protective shield against grazing animals.Many nettle patches hold overwintering insects which swarm around fresh spring nettles and provide early food for ladybirds. These same aphids are eaten by blue tits and other woodland birds that dart around the stems. In late summer the huge quantity of seeds produced are food for many seed-eating birds, such as house sparrows, chaffinches, and bullfinches.Nettles are also a magnet for other insect-eaters like hedgehogs, shrews, frogs and toads, at all times of year. Certain moths like nettles, as do many of the UK’s most colourful and best known butterflies, such as the Small Tortoiseshell and Peacock Butterflies. Their larvae feed in large groups in silken tents at the top of the nettle stems.My nettle stand is conveniently out of sight of neighbours who might feel inclined to complain about their untidiness, so can be left to overwinter without a mowing or scything regime.

Nettle can be used as a natural fertiliser in the form of a tea. Fill a bucket with nettle clippings (particularly tops). Add rain water to about 3/4 full. Chop the mixture with hedge clippers. Stir the mixture thoroughly every few days (some say once a day, every day). After about two weeks it is ready to use.When using this mixture, filter out the debris and use only the clearish liquid. The solution is mixed with water in a proportion of 1 : 10 (one part nettle solution to ten parts water). Pour the solution directly at the base of the plants where the roots will have quick use of it. This "tea" is meant as a supplimental feeding for plants that have a high demand for nourishment, such as tomatos, leeks, brassicas, cucumbers and courgettes. Other plants that will appreciate stinging nettle tea include fruit trees and bushes, roses, annuals and perennial flowering plants. It is not really meant to supplement such plants as onions beans and peas.

GMO Artwork

Design in Nature

“The world teeters on the threshold of revolution. If it is a bloody revolution It is all over.

The alternative is a design science revolution... Design science produces so much performance per unit of resource invested as to take care of all human needs.”

~ Buckminster Fuller~

"...design is a connection between things. It is not water, or a chicken or the tree. It is how the water, the chicken and the tree are connected. It's the opposite of what we are taught in school. Education takes everything and pulls it apart and makes no connections at all. Permaculture makes the connection because as soon as you have the connection you can feed the chicken from the tree."

~Bill Mollison~

From Prince Caspian

Lucy’s eyes began to grow accustomed to the light, and she saw the trees that were nearest her more distinctly. A great longing for the days when the trees could talk in Narnia came over her. She knew exactly how each of these trees would talk if only she could wake them, and what sort of human form it would put on. She looked at a silver birch: it would have a soft, showery voice and would look like a slender girl, with hair blown all about her face, and fond of dancing. She looked at the oak: he would be a wizened, but hearty old man with a frizzled beard and warts on his face and hands, and hair growing out of the warts. She looked at the beech under which she was standing. Ah!- she would be the best of all. She would be a gracious goddess, smooth and stately, the lady of the wood.

C.S. Lewis, Prince Caspian.

Ernst Haeckel: Art Forms in Nature (1899)

Kunstformen der Natur (German for Art Forms of Nature) is a book of lithographic and autotype prints by German biologist Ernst Haeckel. Originally published in sets of ten between 1899 and 1904 and collectively in two volumes in 1904, it consists of 100 prints of various organisms, many of which were first described by Haeckel himself. Over the course of his career, over 1000 engravings were produced based on Haeckel's sketches and watercolors; many of the best of these were chosen for Kunstformen der Natur, translated from sketch to print by lithographer Adolf Giltsch. Kunstformen der Natur was influential in early 20th-century art, architecture, and design, bridging the gap between science and art. In particular, many artists associated with Art Nouveau were influenced by Haeckel's images, including René Binet, Karl Blossfeldt, Hans Christiansen, and Émile Gallé.

Goethe on Nature

"God can be worshipped in no more beautiful way than by the spontaneous welling up from one’s breast of mutual converse with Nature".

"Man in his misguidance has powerfully interfered with nature. He has devastated the forests, and thereby even changed the atmospheric conditions and the climate. Some species of plants and animals have become entirely extinct through man, although they were essential in the economy of Nature. Everywhere the purity of the air is affected by smoke and the like, and the rivers are defiled. These and other things are serious encroachments upon Nature, which men nowadays entirely overlook but which are of the greatest importance, and at once show their evil effect not only upon plants but upon animals as well, the latter not having the endurance and power of resistance of man".

Text: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832)

Image: Goethe by Andy Warhol (1982)